향료무역(香料貿易 : Spice trade)

향신료(spice:香辛料) http://blog.daum.net/han0114/17048815 

네덜란드 동인도 회사 (Dutch East Indies/ Netherlands East Indie)

http://blog.daum.net/han0114/17048858 

포르투갈의 아프리카 항로개척 http://blog.daum.net/han0114/17048678 

유럽의 대항해시대는 그들에게 모든 것을 안겨주었다.

유럽의 대항해시대는 15세기까지 베네치아의 무역독점을 분쇄하는 계기가 되었고 향료무역에 있어서도 이슬람 지배를 극복했으며, 유럽과 극동 간에 다양한 상품의 교역을 확대하면서 새로운 세계로 나아감과 동시에 그들의 왕국과 비교도 되지 않을 식민지를 잉태하게 하여 소유하게 하였다. 그것이 오늘날 유럽인들이 역사 우위와 함께 종교문화 우위까지 있게 한 중요한 원인이라 할 수 있다.

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향료무역 (香料貿易 : Spice trade)

향료무역[香料貿易, spice trade] 인쇄하기 문화적·경제적으로 커다란 중요성을 갖는 향료와 향료식물의 거래.

향료는 고대로부터 유래된 주요거래 품이었다. 육계·계피·소두구·생강·심황은 동양인들에게 수천 년 전부터 알려져 있었다. 이러한 식물들은 초기 무역에 있어서 중요한 품목이었다. 육계와 계피는 이미 BC 2000년에 중동으로 수출되었다. 태고적부터 남아라비아는 유향, 몰약, 향내 나는 수지와 고무 등의 교역 중심지였다(→ 아라비아펠릭스). 아라비아 상인들은 이러한 향료들의 진짜 원산지를 교묘하게 감추고 사람들의 호기심을 자극하는 한편, 경쟁자들을 물리치기 위해 향료에 대한 신비로운 이야기들을 만들어 퍼뜨렸다. 예를 들면 육계는 날개달린 짐승들이 지키는 얕은 호수에서 자라고 계피는 독사가 우글대는 협곡에서 자란다고 꾸며댔다. 대(大)플리니우스(23~79)는 이러한 이야기들이 말도 안 되는 소리라고 비웃으며, "이러한 모든 이야기들은 상품의 가격을 높이기 위해 지어낸 것이다"라고 공언했다.

아시아를 가로지르는 어느 육로가 무역로로 이용되었든지 간에 향료무역을 하게 된 것은 주로 해로를 이용하면서부터이다. 아랍인들은 기원전에 이미 직선 항로를 이용했다. 극동에서는 중국인들이 말레이 군도를 거쳐 아라비아로 항해하고 스파이스 제도(지금의 몰루카 제도나 동인도제도)에서 교역을 했다. 당시의 중심 교역지는 실론(지금의 스리랑카)이었다. 이집트의 알렉산드리아는 BC 80년 프톨레마이오스 6세에 의해 로마에 유증(遺贈)되었을 무렵 이미 막대한 액수의 입항세 세입을 올리고 있었다. 로마의 지배 하에서 알렉산드리아는 세계 최대의 무역 중심지가 되었으며, 인도의 향료와 매운 양념들이 거래되는 중심시장이었다. 로마와 인도간의 교역은 300여년 이상 크게 번성하다가 감소되기 시작했다. 물론 로마와 인도와의 직접교역이 향료교역에 있어서 아랍인의 주도권을 약화시키기는 했으나 완전히 빼앗지는 못했다. 로마의 향료무역이 5세기에 활기를 띠다가 6세기에 쇠퇴한데 반해 아랍의 교역은 중세의 모든 시기에 걸쳐 활발히 이루어졌다. 10세기경 베네치아는 레반트(지중해의 동부 연안제국)의 향료무역으로 인해 번성하기 시작했는데, 13세기 초반에는 중동과의 교역을 독점했고 15세기경에는 유럽에서 절대적인 위력을 떨쳤다. 베네치아는 동양과의 향료무역으로 부를 축적하기도 했는데, 알렉산드리아에서 향료를 구입하여 북부·서부 유럽의 상인들에게 비싼 가격으로 팔아 폭리를 취했다.

알렉산드리아에서 들여온 향료의 원산지를 알게 된 한편 베네치아의 주도권을 분쇄할 수 없다는 사실을 깨달은 유럽인들은 15세기 말엽에 향료 생산국으로 가는 항로를 찾기 위해 배를 건조하여 위험한 항해를 감행하기 시작했다. 이리하여 유명한 지리상의 발견이 시작된 것이다. 1501년 포르투갈이 제일먼저 희망봉을 경유하여 인도로부터 향료를 가져왔다. 1492년 크리스토퍼 콜럼버스가 스페인의 지원 아래 항해를 떠났고, 1497년에는 존 캐벗이 영국의 후원을 받아 항로개척에 나섰지만 이들 모두 전설의 땅을 발견하는 데는 실패했다. 1519년에는 마젤란이 스페인의 후원 아래 탐험에 착수했다. 그의 지휘 하에 출발한 5척의 함선 중에서 오직 빅토리아호 1척만이 스페인으로 귀향했으나 이들은 정향을 싣고 돌아왔다. 1577년 프란시스 드레이크 경은 마젤란 해협과 스파이스 제도를 경유하여 세계를 일주하는 모험을 감행했는데, 1580년 골든하인드호에 삼출엽(三出葉)의 정향과 귀중한 보물들을 가득 싣고 플리머스항으로 돌아왔다.

네덜란드에서는 1595년 코넬리스 드 휴트먼의 지휘하에, 1598년에는 야코프 반 네크가 스파이스 제도를 향해 출범했다. 이들은 정향, 육두구 가루 및 종자, 후추 등을 가득 싣고 고국으로 향했다. 1602년 네덜란드 국회의 인가를 받아 네덜란드동인도회사가 설립되었다. 또한 1664년에는 루이14세로부터 특허를 받아 프랑스동인도회사가 세워졌다. 이 밖의 다른 유럽 국가들도 여러 가지 방식에 의해 동인도회사를 설립할 수 있는 특허를 내주었다. 그 후 경제적 우위와 무역에 대한 독점권을 얻기 위한 싸움과 정복이 시작되었다. 100여년 동안 포르투갈이 우위를 지켰으나 결국 영국과 네덜란드에게 자리를 내주게 되었다. 19세기까지 영국은 인도와 실론에서 커다란 이권을 누렸으며 네덜란드는 동인도제도의 많은 지역에서 지배권을 행사했다. 당시는 선원들에게 있어서 모험·위험·고난·질병·죽음의 시대였다. 한편 국가적으로 볼 때는 원시적인 신대륙을 손에 넣고 문명화된 외국의 영토들을 식민지로 삼아 지배하기 위한 투쟁과 정복의 시대였다. 또한 유럽의 제국가들에게는 무역이권을 획득한 상업적인 성공을 이룬 시대였다. 즉 베네치아의 무역독점을 분쇄하고 향료무역에 있어서의 이슬람 지배를 극복했으며, 유럽과 극동 간에 다양한 상품의 교역을 확대하고 새로운 세계로 나아갈 수 있었다.[네이트사전]

 

The economically important Silk Road and spice trade routes became blocked by the Ottoman Empire ca. 1453 with the fall of the Byzantine Empire, soon spurring exploration motivated initially by the finding of a sea route around Africa and triggering the Age of Discovery.

 

The path of Vasco da Gama's course to India (black) , Pêro da Covilhã (orange) and Afonso de Paiva (blue), with common routes shown in green.

The spice trade is a commercial activity of ancient origin which involves the merchandising of spices, incense, herbs, drugs and opium. Civilizations of Asia were involved in spice trade from the ancient times, and the Greco-Roman world soon followed by trading along the Incense route and the Roman-India routes. The Roman-Indian routes were dependent upon techniques developed by the maritime trading power, Kingdom of Axum (ca 400s BC–AD 1000s) which had pioneered the Red Sea route before the 1st century. When they encountered Rome (circa 30 BCE– 10 CE) they shared with Roman merchants knowledge of riding the seasonal monsoons of the Arabian Sea, keeping a cordial relationship with one another until the mid-seventh century, when the rise of Islam closed off the overland caravan routes through Egypt and the Suez, and sundered the European trade community from Axum and India. Arab traders eventually took over conveying goods via the Levant and Venetian merchants to Europe until the rise of the Ottoman Turks cut the route again by 1453.

Overland routes helped the spice trade initially, but maritime trade routes led to tremendous growth in commercial activities. During the high and late medieval periods Muslim traders dominated maritime spice trading routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping spices from trading emporiums in India westward to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, from which overland routes led to Europe.

The trade was transformed by the European Age of Discovery, during which the spice trade, particularly in pepper, became an influential activity for European traders. The route from Europe to the Indian Ocean via the Cape of Good Hope was pioneered by Portuguese navigators, such as Vasco Da Gama, resulting in new maritime routes for trade.

This trade — driving the world economy from the end of the Middle Ages well into the modern times - ushered an age of European domination in the East. Channels, such as the Bay of Bengal, served as bridges for cultural and commercial exchanges between diverse cultures as nations struggled to gain control of the trade along the many spice routes. European dominance was slow to develop. The Portuguese trade routes were mainly restricted and limited by the use of ancient routes, ports, and nations that were difficult to dominate. The Dutch were later able to bypass much of these problems by pioneering a direct ocean route from the Cape of Good Hope to the Sunda Strait in Indonesia.

배경

Spices such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, and turmeric were known, and used for commerce, in the Eastern World well into antiquity. These spices found their way into the Middle East before the beginning of the Common Era, where the true sources of these spices was withheld by the traders, and associated with fantastic tales. The Egyptians had traded in the Red Sea, importing spices from the "Land of Punt" and from Arabia. Luxury goods traded along the Incense Route included Indian spices, ebony, silk and fine textiles.

The spice trade was associated with overland routes early on but maritime routes proved to be the factor which helped this trade grow. The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with India using the Red Sea ports. With the establishment of Roman Egypt, the Romans further developed the already existing trade. As early as 80 BC, Alexandria became the dominant trading center for Indian spices entering the Greco-Roman world. Indian ships sailed to Egypt. The thriving maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power, but through various systems eastern spices were brought to the major spice trading port of Calicut in India.

According to the The Cambridge History of Africa (1975):

“ The trade with Arabia and India in incense and spices became increasingly important, and Greeks for the first time began to trade directly with India. The discovery, or rediscovery, of the sea-route to India is attributed to a certain Eudoxos, who was sent out for this purpose towards the end of the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes II (died 116 BC). Eudoxos made two voyages to India, and subsequently, having quarrelled with his Ptolemaic employers, perished in an unsuccessful attempt to open up an alternative sea route to India, free of Ptolemaic control, by sailing around Africa. The establishment of direct contacts between Egypt and India was probably made possible by a weakening of Arab power at this period, for the Sabaean kingdom of South-western Arabia collapsed and was replaced by Himyarite Kingdom around 115 BC. Imports into Egypt of cinnamon and other eastern spices, such as pepper, increased substantially, though the Indian Ocean trade remained for the moment on quite a small scale, no more than twenty Egyptian ships venturing outside the Red Sea each year. ”

The trade between India and the Greco-Roman world kept on increasing; within this trade spices were the main import from India to the Western world, bypassing silk and other commodities.

In Java and Borneo, the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics. These trading outposts later served the Chinese and Arab markets as well. The Greek document Periplus Maris Erythraei names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed towards east to Khruse.

Pre-Islamic Meccans continued to use the old Incense Route to benefit from the heavy Roman demand for luxury goods. The Meccan involvement saw the export of the same goods: Arabian frankincense, East African ivory and gold, Indian spices, Chinese silk etc.

 

The spice trade from India attracted the attention of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and subsequently the Roman empire.

Middle ages

The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the seventh century and the eighth century. The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta, Aden and Siraf as entry ports to India and China. Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of musk, camphor, ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad, the sultan of Yemen.

Moluccan products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka. After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports were sometimes shipped to East Africa, where they would be used for many purposes, including burial rites.

Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (fourteenth century). Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants depart for distant countries."

The islands of Molucca also find mention in several records: Meluza or Melucha is mentioned by a member of the Brazil-India expedition under Cabral; Amerigo Vespucci mentions Maluche in a letter to Lorenzo de Medici (1501); a Javanese chronicles (1365) mentions the Moluccas and Maloko; and navigational works of the fourteenth century and the fifteenth century contain the first unequivocal Arab reference to Moluccas. Sulaima al-Mahr writes: "East of Timor [where sandalwood is found] are the islands of Bandam and they are the islands where nutmeg and mace are found. The islands of cloves are called Maluku ....."

Rome briefly played a part in the spice trade during the 5th century, but this role, unlike the Arabian one, could not last through the Middle Ages. The Republic of Venice became a formidable power, and a key player in the Eastern spice trade. Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build up maritime capability.

 

Image of Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572.

The New World

One of the major consequences of the spice trade was the discovery of the American continent by European explorers. Until the mid 15th century, trade with the east was achieved through the Silk Road, with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa acting as a middle man. In 1453, however, the Ottomans took Constantinople and so the Byzantine Empire was no more. Now in control of the sole spice trade route that existed at the time, the Ottoman Empire was in a favorable position to charge hefty taxes on merchandise bound for the west. The Western Europeans, not wanting to be dependent on an expansionist, non-Christian power for the lucrative commerce with the east, set about to find an alternate sea route around Africa.

The first country to attempt to circumnavigate Africa was Portugal, which had, since the early 15th century, begun to explore northern Africa under Henry the Navigator. Emboldened by these early successes and eyeing a lucrative monopoly on a possible sea route to the Indies the Portuguese first crossed the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 on an expedition led by Bartolomeu Dias. Just nine years later in 1497 on the orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut. a south Indian city in the state of kerala. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade.

 

One of Magellan's ships circumnavigated the globe, finishing 16 months after the explorer's death.

It was during this time of discovery that explorers working for the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns first set foot on the New World. Christopher Columbus was the first when, in 1492, in an attempt to reach the Indies by sailing westward, he made landfall on an island in what is now The Bahamas. Believing to have in fact reached India, he named the natives "Indians". Just eight years later in 1500, the Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral while attempting to reproduce Vasco da Gama’s route to India was blown westwards to what is today Brazil. After taking possession of the new land, Cabral resumed his voyage to India, finally arriving there in September 1500 and returning to Portugal by 1501.

By now the Portuguese had complete control of the African sea route and as such, the Spanish, if they were to have any hope of competing with Portugal for the lucrative trade, had to find an alternate route. Their first, early, attempt was with Christopher Columbus, but he ended up finding a continent in between Europe and Asia. The Spanish finally succeeded with the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan . on October 21, 1520 his expedition crossed what is now known as the Strait of Magellan, opening the west coast of the Americas for exploration. on March 16, 1521 the ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice Islands, effectively establishing the first westward spice trade route to Asia. Upon returning to Spain in 1522 aboard the last remaining ship of the expedition, the survivors of the expedition became the first humans to circumnavigate the globe.

Trade under colonialism

 

                                                  European settlements in India.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica 2002: "Ferdinand Magellan took up the quest for Spain in 1519. Of the five vessels under his command, only one, the Victoria, returned to Spain, but triumphantly, laden with cloves."

The first Dutch expedition left from Amsterdam (April 1595) for South East Asia. Another Dutch convoy sailed in 1598 and returned one year later with 600, 000 pounds of spices and other East Indian products. The United East India Company forged alliance with the principal producers of cloves and nutmeg. The British East India Company shipped substantial quantities of spices during the early seventeenth century.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica 2002:

“ In 1602 the Dutch East India Company came into existence by authority of the Estates-General of the Netherlands. In 1664 the French East India Company was organized by state authorization under Louis XIV. Other European nations granted charters to East India companies with varying success. There followed struggles and conquests to gain advantage and monopolistic control of the trade. For more than 100 years Portugal was the dominant power, eventually yielding to English and Dutch enterprise and conquest; by the 19th century British interests were firmly rooted in India and Ceylon, and the Dutch were in control over the greater part of the East Indies. ”

The growing competition led to rival nations resorting to military means for control of the spice trade. In 1641, Portuguese Molucca was captured by the Dutch. The capture saw concentrated plantation on cloves and nutmegs and then — using the Treaty of Batavia (1652) - an attempt to destroy trees on all other islands in order to keep the supply in check and control the important markets of spices. This attempt disrupted the ancient patterns of trade and even led to depopulation of entire islands, notably Banda.

 

Islands of Northern Indonesia and Southern Philippines, commonly called the Spice Islands.

The Moluccas became the principal entry ports for the spice trade, and according to Robin A. Donkin (2003):

“ Trade by Europeans between different parts of South and East Asia was often more profitable than supplying the home countries. In the 1530s, the Portuguese shipped substantially more cloves, nutmegs, and mace to India and Hormuz than to Portugal. The buyers in Hormuz were "Moorish merchants who pass[ed] it on, over Persia, Arabia and all Asia as far as Turkey." From at least the seventeenth century, the same products were taken to Bengal by the Portuguese and the Dutch. English merchants found that they sold "Exceedingly well in Surratt" and other Indian and Persian stations. The Dutch between 1620 and 1740 marketed one-third or more of their spices, notably cloves, in Asia: Persia, Arabia, and India. Japan was served by the Portuguese from Macau and later by the Dutch, but the demand for cloves and spices generally was said in the early seventeenth century to be relatively small and prices were consequently low. ”

Penang, a British colony, was established as a pepper port in 1786. During the Eighteenth century, French possessions in India were seized by the British, who then moved on to aggressively check Holland in the Far East. The status the Dutch East India Company weakened as a result of the growing British influence.

In 1585, ships from the West Indies arrived in Europe with a cargo of Jamaican ginger, a root originating in India and South China, which became the first Asian spice to grow successfully in the New World. Notions of plants and trees not growing successfully outside of their native lands, however, were harbored until the mid eighteenth century, championed by eminent botanists of the day, such as Georg Eberhard Rumpf (1627-1702).[28] Rumpf's theory was discredited by a series of successful transplantation experiments carried out in Europe and the Malay Peninsula during the early Eighteenth century.

By 1815, the first shipment of nutmegs from Sumatra had arrived in Europe. Furthermore, islands of the West Indies, like Grenada, also became involved in spice trade.

 

   The British constructed fortified military settlements, such as Fort Cornwallis, in Penang.

Sandalwood from Timor and Tibetan incense gained status as prized commodities in China during the early eighteenth century. East Asia displayed a general interest in sandalwood products, which were used to make images of the Buddha and other valuable artifacts.

Merchants from Salem, Massachusetts traded profitably with Sumatra during the early half of the nineteenth century. The kingdom of Aceh became a powerful entity in the South Eastern spice trade, with the Acehnese resisted Dutch invasions and forged trading relationships with the traders from Salem.  In 1818, a number of uneventful voyages were made to Sumatra from Salem. This trend continued until a series of pirate attacks caused widespread alarm throughout the trading community, further spread by stories of Indian and European sailors meeting terrible fate at the hands of the pirates. The United States of America resorted to punitive measures following piracy and other hostilities upon the New Englanders, especially after the murder of five crewmen of the trading ship Friendship, regarded as the worst act of hostility in the trade between Sumatra and Salem.

The mid nineteenth century saw the advent of artificial refrigeration, which resulted in a decline in the overall status of spice consumption, and trade.

문화변화

Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities. Buddhism, in particular, traveled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy. Islam spread throughout the East, reaching Maritime Southeast Asia in the 10th century; Muslim merchants played a crucial part in the trade. Christians missionaries, such as, Saint Francis Xavier, were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the East. Christianity competed with Islam to become the dominant religion of the Moluccas. However, the natives of the Spice Islands accommodated aspects of both the religions easily.

The Portuguese colonial settlements saw traders such as the Gujarati banias, South Indian Chettis, Syrian Christians, Chinese from Fujian province, and Arabs from Aden involved in the spice trade. Epics, languages, and cultural customs were borrowed by Southeast Asia from India, and later China. Knowledge of Portuguese language became essential for merchants involved in the trade.

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, notable present day Malaysia and Indonesia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular. European people intermarried with the Indians, and popularized valuable culinary skills, such as baking, in India. The Portuguese also introduced vinegar to India, and Franciscan priests manufactured it from coconut toddy.  Indian food, adapted to European palate, became visible in England by 1811 as exclusive establishments began catering to the tastes of both the curious and those returning from India.[wiki]